Aristotle and the Object of Life
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle initiates his discussion by asserting that every activity or rational action aims at some end, or some good. Specifically, Aristotle notes that every art and every investigation, and similarly, every action and pursuit, is considered to aim at some good. He defines "the good" as "that which all things aim." In Aristotle’s words, "the good is that which all things aim." This suggests that every inquiry, pursuit, and action has a purpose and ultimate goal.
However, Aristotle also notes that not all ends are the same. Some activities are ends in themselves, where the activity is the end. In other cases, activities are distinct from their ends. In these instances, the end is considered superior to the activity itself. For example, the end of medical science is health, which Aristotle considers superior to the activities within medical science. Similarly, the end of economic science is wealth, which is superior to the activities within economic science—although Aristotle views wealth as merely instrumental and certainly not the chief or highest good.
Aristotle then suggests that an end which we desire purely for itself, and not as a means to something else, would be the highest good. If all our desires are merely means to other ends, then there is no ultimate goal, which, according to Aristotle, would render life meaningless and ineffectual. In his view, endless pursuits without a final good would leave our desires pointless. Only by recognizing the highest good can we make it our goal and target. Thus, for Aristotle, having knowledge of the chief or supreme good is essential to making it a true objective.
Aristotle identifies this highest good as happiness, or eudaimonia, and notes that this is agreed upon by both ordinary individuals and the wise. Aristotle likes to distinguish between the cultured and wise or contemplative individuals, which is a recurring theme in his arguments. He suggests that if we were to ask the general populace what happiness consists of, the answers would differ from those of the wise. Not only that, but the answers of ordinary individuals may vary over time. For example, one might say at one point that happiness consists of wealth, but at another point—perhaps if in ill health—that it consists of health.
The differences between the Stoic and Aristotelian views are also notable. Aristotle views health as a good, whereas Stoics see health as a mere external, which cannot be classified as a good because it does not depend entirely on us. Health can be compromised by factors outside our control, which, for the Stoics, places it outside the sphere of true goods. This perspective is for a separate discussion.
Aristotle further argues that there must be a fundamental good that causes the goodness found in other goods, which should be our ultimate goal. He agrees that the good life, or happiness (eudaimonia), must be internal and self-sufficient, not relying on external factors. For example, honor cannot be the ultimate goal because it depends on externals—specifically, reputation. Similar to Epictetus' idea of the dichotomy of control, where reputation lies outside our control, Aristotle argues that happiness or the ultimate good must be internal. If it depends on anything external, then it is vulnerable, and thus, the chief good would be at risk.
In earlier discussions, I have mentioned how Stoics differ in their perspectives on externals. For example, Stoics consider health an external, whereas Aristotle does not view it strictly as such. For Aristotle, honor depends on the opinions of others, and so cannot be the ultimate good we strive for, as it is conferred upon us by others and cannot be granted by ourselves. Similarly, he argues that wealth is merely instrumental—used for the sake of other things—and cannot be the highest good. Pleasure, too, is rejected as the ultimate good.
The question then arises: what is the ultimate good? For Aristotle, it is happiness, or eudaimonia. To answer why happiness is the ultimate good, and what happiness consists of, we must recognize that common individuals and the wise have different perspectives on happiness. Aristotle often separates cultured, wise individuals from the general population as part of his arguments.
In brief, Aristotle defines happiness as the virtuous activity of the soul. Thus, happiness is the virtuous activity of the soul, and I will discuss further why happiness is the ultimate good and what it entails in a later analysis.
